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Jacques Copeau , strongly influenced by Commedia dell'arte and Japanese Noh theatre, used masks in the training of his actors.

Jacques Lecoq contributed significantly to the development of mime and physical theatre with his training methods. While some ballet emphasises "the lines and patterns of movement itself" dramatic dance "expresses or imitates emotion, character, and narrative action".

Creative drama includes dramatic activities and games used primarily in educational settings with children.

Its roots in the United States began in the early s. Winifred Ward is considered to be the founder of creative drama in education, establishing the first academic use of drama in Evanston, Illinois.

The earliest form of Indian drama was the Sanskrit drama. The earliest-surviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from the 1st century AD. The Treatise is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world.

It addresses acting , dance , music , dramatic construction , architecture, costuming , make-up , props , the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of theatre.

Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of Sanskrit literature. Actors may have specialised in a particular type.

It was patronized by the kings as well as village assemblies. Rabindranath Tagore was a pioneering modern playwright who wrote plays noted for their exploration and questioning of nationalism, identity, spiritualism and material greed.

Karnad's numerous plays such as Tughlaq , Hayavadana , Taledanda , and Naga-Mandala are significant contributions to Indian drama.

Vijay Tendulkar and Mahesh Dattani are amongst the major Indian playwrights of the 20th century. His dramatic experiments led to the famous Inder Sabha of Amanat and later this tradition took the shape of Parsi Theatre.

Agha Hashr Kashmiri is the culmination of this tradition. Urdu theatre tradition has greatly influenced modern Indian theatre.

Theatre has flourished in Urdu which was called Hindi by early writers , along with Gujrati , Marathi , and Bengali.

Urdu drama has had an important influence on Bombay Film industry and all the early works of Urdu theatre performed by Parsi Companies were made into films.

Urdu dramatic tradition has existed for more than a years. Prof Hasan, Ghulam Jeelani, J. Sayeed Alam is known for his wit and humour and more particularly for plays like 'Ghalib in New Delhi', 'Big B' and many other works, which are regularly staged for large audiences.

Maulana Azad is his most important play both for its content and style. Danish Iqbal's play Dara Shikoh directed by M.

Sathyu is a modern classic that uses newer theatre techniques and a contemporary perspective. His other plays are Sahir.

Kuchh Ishq kiya Kuchh Kaam is another play written by Danish which is basically a Celebration of Faiz 's poetry, featuring events from the early part of his life, particularly the events and incidents of pre-partition days which shaped his life and ideals.

Shahid's Three B is also a significant play. He has been associated with many groups like 'Natwa' and others. Zaheer Anwar has kept the flag of Urdu theatre flying in Kolkata.

Unlike the writers of previous generation Sayeed, Shahid, Danish Iqbal and Zaheer do not write bookish plays but their work is a product of performing tradition.

Hence this is the only generation after Amanat and Agha Hashr who actually write for stage and not for libraries.

Chinese theatre has a long and complex history. Today it is often called Chinese opera although this normally refers specifically to the popular form known as Beijing opera and Kunqu ; there have been many other forms of theatre in China, such as zaju.

It developed in the 14th and 15th centuries and has its own musical instruments and performance techniques, which were often handed down from father to son.

It is still performed in Japan today. Kabuki drama, developed from the 17th century, is another comic form, which includes dance.

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As Aristotle remarks, 'the poet, or "maker" should be the maker of plots rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he imitates , and what he imitates are actions '" , 8.

The sense of the creator of plays as a "maker" rather than a "writer" is preserved in the word playwright. The Theatre , one of the first purpose-built playhouses in London, was an intentional reference to the Latin term for that particular playhouse, rather than a term for the buildings in general , The word 'dramatist' "was at that time still unknown in the English language" , All forms of improvisation take their cue from their immediate response to one another, their characters' situations which are sometimes established in advance , and, often, their interaction with the audience.

Taxidou notes that "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct" , Brown writes that ancient Greek drama "was essentially the creation of classical Athens : all the dramatists who were later regarded as classics were active at Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BC the time of the Athenian democracy , and all the surviving plays date from this period" , For more information on these ancient Greek dramatists, see the articles categorised under "Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights" in Wikipedia.

For more information on the ancient Roman dramatists, see the articles categorised under "Ancient Roman dramatists and playwrights" in Wikipedia.

Many churches would have only performed one or two liturgical dramas per year and a larger number never performed any at all.

In Early English Stages , Wickham points to the existence of The Interlude of the Student and the Girl as evidence that the old-fashioned view that comedy began in England in the s with Gammer Gurton's Needle and Ralph Roister Doister is mistaken, ignoring as it does a rich tradition of medieval comic drama ; see Wickham , When Jeremy Collier attacked Congreve and Vanbrugh in his Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage in , he was confirming a shift in audience taste that had already taken place.

Moi writes that "Ibsen is the most important playwright writing after Shakespeare. He is the founder of modern theater.

His plays are world classics, staged on every continent, and studied in classrooms everywhere. In any given year, there are hundreds of Ibsen productions in the world.

Taxidou writes: "It is probably historically more accurate, although methodologically less satisfactory, to read the Naturalist movement in the theatre in conjunction with the more anti-illusionist aesthetics of the theatres of the same period.

These interlock and overlap in all sorts of complicated ways, even when they are vehemently denouncing each other perhaps particularly when in the favoured mode of the time, the manifesto" , Encyclopedia Britannica.

Retrieved 21 May Archived from the original on 15 July Retrieved 27 February Banham, Martin, ed.

The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Baumer, Rachel Van M. Brandon, eds. Sanskrit Theatre in Performance.

Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, Bevington, David M. Bhatta, S. New Delhi: Sterling. Brandon, James R. In Baumer and Brandon , xvii—xx.

The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Brockett, Oscar G. History of the Theatre. Ninth edition, International edition.

Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Brown, Andrew. Martin Banham. Burt, Daniel S. Facts on File ser. Callery, Dympha.

London: Nick Hern. Carlson, Marvin. Expanded ed. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. Cartledge, Paul.

Chakraborty, Kaustav, ed. Indian English Drama. Deshpande, G. Modern Indian Drama: An Anthology. New Delhi: Sahitya Akedemi. Dillon, Janette. Cambridge Introductions to Literature ser.

Duchartre, Pierre Louis. The Italian Comedy. Unabridged republication. New York: Dover, Dukore, Bernard F. Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to.

Easterling, P. The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge Companions to Literature ser. Ehrlich, Harriet W. Elam, Keir. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama.

New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. Fergusson, Francis. Goldhill, Simon. Gordon, Mel. Gutzwiller, Kathryn.

The play is the allegorical accounting of the life of Everyman, who represents all mankind. In the course of the action, Everyman tries to convince other characters to accompany him in the hope of improving his account.

All the characters are also allegorical, each personifying an abstract idea such as Fellowship, [material] Goods, and Knowledge. The conflict between good and evil is dramatized by the interactions between characters.

The period known as the English Renaissance , approximately —, saw a flowering of the drama and all the arts. During the reign of Elizabeth I — and then James I —25 , in the late 16th and early 17th century, a London-centred culture, that was both courtly and popular, produced great poetry and drama.

The English playwrights were intrigued by Italian model: a conspicuous community of Italian actors had settled in London.

The linguist and lexicographer John Florio — , whose father was Italian, was a royal language tutor at the Court of James I , and a possible friend of and influence on William Shakespeare , had brought much of the Italian language and culture to England.

He was also the translator of Montaigne into English. William Shakespeare stands out in this period as a poet and playwright as yet unsurpassed.

Shakespeare was not a man of letters by profession, and probably had only some grammar school education. He was neither a lawyer, nor an aristocrat as the "university wits" that had monopolised the English stage when he started writing.

But he was very gifted and incredibly versatile, and he surpassed "professionals" as Robert Greene who mocked this "shake-scene" of low origins.

He was himself an actor and deeply involved in the running of the theatre company that performed his plays. Most playwrights at this time tended to specialise in, either histories , or comedies , or tragedies.

His 38 plays include tragedies, comedies, and histories. After the lyrical Richard II , written almost entirely in verse, Shakespeare introduced prose comedy into the histories of the late s, Henry IV, parts 1 and 2 , and Henry V.

This period begins and ends with two tragedies: Romeo and Juliet , and Julius Caesar , based on Sir Thomas North's translation of Plutarch's Parallel Lives , which introduced a new kind of drama.

Though most of his plays met with success, it was in his later years, that Shakespeare wrote what have been considered his greatest plays: Hamlet , Othello , King Lear , Macbeth , Antony and Cleopatra.

In his final period, Shakespeare turned to romance or tragicomedy and completed three more major plays: Cymbeline , The Winter's Tale and The Tempest , as well as the collaboration, Pericles, Prince of Tyre.

Less bleak than the tragedies, these four plays are graver in tone than the comedies of the s, but they end with reconciliation and the forgiveness of potentially tragic errors.

Other important figures in Elizabethan theatre include Christopher Marlowe — , Thomas Dekker c. Marlowe — was born only a few weeks before Shakespeare and must have known him.

Marlowe's subject matter is different from Shakespeare's as it focuses more on the moral drama of the renaissance man than any other thing.

Marlowe was fascinated and terrified by the new frontiers opened by modern science. At the end of a twenty-four years' covenant with the devil he has to surrender his soul to him.

Beaumont and Fletcher are less-known, but they may have helped Shakespeare write some of his best dramas, and were popular at the time.

One of Beaumont and Fletcher's chief merits was that of realising how feudalism and chivalry had turned into snobbery and make-believe and that new social classes were on the rise.

Beaumont's comedy, The Knight of the Burning Pestle , satirises the rising middle class and especially of those nouveaux riches who pretend to dictate literary taste without knowing much literature at all.

Ben Jonson's aesthetics have roots in the Middle Ages as his characters are based on the theory of humours.

However, the stock types of Latin literature were an equal influence. However, in his best work, characters are "so vitally rendered as to take on a being that transcends the type".

Jonson's famous comedy Volpone or shows how a group of scammers are fooled by a top con-artist, vice being punished by vice, virtue meting out its reward.

In the story, a grocer and his wife wrangle with the professional actors to have their illiterate son play a leading role in the play. A popular style of theatre during Jacobean times was the revenge play , which had been popularised earlier in the Elizabethan era by Thomas Kyd —94 , and then subsequently developed by John Webster — in the 17th century.

Webster's major plays, The White Devil c. Webster has received a reputation for being the Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatist with the most unsparingly dark vision of human nature.

Webster's tragedies present a horrific vision of mankind and in his poem "Whispers of Immortality," T. Eliot memorably says, that Webster always saw "the skull beneath the skin".

While Webster's drama was generally dismissed in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, there has been "a strong revival of interest" in the 20th century.

George Chapman? The Tragedy of Mariam, the Fair Queen of Jewry , a closet drama written by Elizabeth Tanfield Cary — and first published in , was the first original play in English known to have been written by a woman.

During the Interregnum —, English theatres were kept closed by the Puritans for religious and ideological reasons. When the London theatres opened again with the Restoration of the monarchy in , they flourished under the personal interest and support of Charles II.

Wide and socially mixed audiences were attracted by topical writing and by the introduction of the first professional actresses in Shakespeare's time, all female roles had been played by boys.

New genres of the Restoration were heroic drama , pathetic drama , and Restoration comedy. This period saw the first professional woman playwright, Aphra Behn , author of many comedies including The Rover Restoration comedy is famous or notorious for its sexual explicitness, a quality encouraged by Charles II — personally and by the rakish aristocratic ethos of his court.

In the 18th century, the highbrow and provocative Restoration comedy lost favour, to be replaced by sentimental comedy , domestic tragedy such as George Lillo 's The London Merchant , and by an overwhelming interest in Italian opera.

Popular entertainment became more dominant in this period than ever before. Fair-booth burlesque and musical entertainment, the ancestors of the English music hall , flourished at the expense of legitimate English drama.

By the early 19th century, few English dramas were being written, except for closet drama , plays intended to be presented privately rather than on stage.

Gilbert and Oscar Wilde were leading poets and dramatists of the late Victorian period. The length of runs in the theatre changed rapidly during the Victorian period.

As transportation improved, poverty in London diminished, and street lighting made for safer travel at night, the number of potential patrons for the growing number of theatres increased enormously.

Plays could run longer and still draw in the audiences, leading to better profits and improved production values.

The first play to achieve consecutive performances was the London comedy Our Boys , opening in Its astonishing new record of 1, performances was bested in by Charley's Aunt.

Pinafore in , and Alfred Cellier and B. Stephenson 's hit, Dorothy , ran for performances. The motion picture mounted a challenge to the stage.

At first, films were silent and presented only a limited challenge to theatre. But by the end of the s, films like The Jazz Singer could be presented with synchronized sound, and critics wondered if the cinema would replace live theatre altogether.

Some dramatists wrote for the new medium, but playwriting continued. Irish playwrights George Bernard Shaw — and J.

Synge — were influential in British drama. Shaw's career began in the last decade of the nineteenth-century and he wrote more than 60 plays.

Synge's plays belong to the first decade of the twentieth century. Synge's most famous play, The Playboy of the Western World , "caused outrage and riots when it was first performed" in Dublin in Many of his works, such as Hay Fever , Private Lives , Design for Living , Present Laughter and Blithe Spirit , have remained in the regular theatre repertoire.

In the s W. Auden and Christopher Isherwood co-authored verse dramas, of which The Ascent of F6 is the most notable, that owed much to Bertolt Brecht.

Eliot had begun this attempt to revive poetic drama with Sweeney Agonistes in , and this was followed by The Rock , Murder in the Cathedral and The Family Reunion There were three further plays after the war.

An important cultural movement in the British theatre which developed in the late s and early s was Kitchen sink realism or "kitchen sink drama" , a term coined to describe art the term itself derives from an expressionist painting by John Bratby , novels, film and television plays.

The term angry young men was often applied to members of this artistic movement. It used a style of social realism which depicts the domestic lives of the working class, to explore social issues and political issues.

Arnold Wesker and Nell Dunn also brought social concerns to the stage. The Theatre of the Absurd influenced Harold Pinter , The Birthday Party, , whose works are often characterised by menace or claustrophobia.